Units 1~5: Review for Finals

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Mercantilism: Goals and Effects

 * British developed a number of loosely related policies to obtain raw materials from the Colonies. (gold and silver were most important)
 * It limited imports and tried to maximize exports, so that America could be ‘self sufficient’ yet keep selling goods to Britain.
 * It tried to stop foreign ships from trading in colonial ports by passing the Navigation Acts, which required that the captain and 2/3 of crew be English of all ships. Colonies were reserved only for trade with English ships.
 * Wool Act prohibited export of wool; Iron Act stopped construction of rolling and slitting mills, both with harmed the U.S.
 * Mercantilism caused England the chief trader of the colonies and made Britain impoverished because America consumed more than it produced. Ship building benefitted from Navigation Acts. It made colonial economy more complex. Smuggling became a habit. England prospered. The laws directed America in the direction that England wanted.
 * bb

the Great Awakening
Promoted religious toleration in the colonies. The arrival of Anglican minister Reverend George Whitefield sparked the religious conflagration.

"Theodore Frelinghuysen, William Tennent sought to instill in their sleepy Pennylvania and New Jersey congregations the evangelical zeal and spiritual enthusiasm they had witnessed among the pietists in Germany and the Methodist followers of John Wesley in England" (87)


 * Religious ideas became popular due to Reverend Whitefield. America became religiously conscious. It fostered religious tolerance. Men like Jonathon Edwards instilled passion in a puritan view of the world.

� Principles of the Enlightenment

 * Growth of philosophy and understanding the world outside of strict church policies began. Religious laws became less strict. Locke and Newton were great Enlighteners. Fields of knowledge (lawyers, etc.) grew. “Cultivation of fine arts and growth of education.
 * Also, refer back to the Rousseau and Locke documents.
 * Rousseau talked about his belief of public opinion versus private will. He was a strong supporter of public opinion (the will of many) and disliked the idea of private interest (the separate belief of each individual)


 * This brings up the very important enlightenment idea of will of all over the will of one (democracy in its earliest form).

Problems for Britain following the French-Indian War

 * Debt, American colonies kept consuming, Indian raids, Americans fought against French.
 * Peace was restored with the Treaty of Paris, where French abandoned all claim to North America. Britain got Canada, and France got Newfoundland. Spain got Cuba, Philippines and New Orleans. France/Spain remained national powers.
 * Prior to the war, Britain had only loosely controlled the American colonies. However, after the war, they began fearing that the colonies would continue to not cooperate. And, as a result, they tightened holds on American colonies. Because of this control Britain was exercising over them, the American colonies became more aware of their lack of freedom, and began questioning British authority.

Purpose of the Proclamation of 1763

 * Due to Indian raid, 6000 soldiers were dispatched to colonies. No American westward expansion was to take place. Purchase of Indian land and trade was prohibited. This was to stop money from draining.


 * When war broke out between England and France in 1763, Pres. Washington issued a proclamation declaring that the U.S. was friendly and impartial toward both England and France.
 * It was mainly to protect the Indians from the settlers and the settlers from the Indians

Views of Sovereignty
British responses to American resistance assumed three possible courses of action:
 * British: Sovereignty (ultimate political power) could not be divided, and the Glorious Revolution had already settled the question of where sovereignty resided: the Parliament.

1) to grant the colo­nies outright independence;

2) to compel colonial obedience to Parliament through force; or

3) to conciliate the colonies by granting each colonial assembly considerable sovereignty over its internal affairs, including the right of taxation, while maintaining British imperial sovereignty in external affairs.

Each of these responses became a basic view of the American Revolution.

BRITISH VIEWS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: A CONFLICT OVER RIGHTS OF SOVEREIGNTY Peter J. Stanlis

Virtual and Direct Representation

 * Virtual- every member of the body stood for the entire nation
 * Direct- geographical, state assemblies (representative per certain area)

American Resistance to the Sugar Act (1764) and Stamp Act

 * Stamp Act placed taxes on all kinds of printed matter. It started the retaliation of colonists, marking the start of the Revolution. Colonies promptly refused to pay taxes, and attacked the offices and properties of tax collectors. This was because American business was poor when the act passed.
 * As Americans, they refused, and as British subjects, they claimed that this was an infringement of their rights. Americans boycotted British goods, and Americans won. The act was repealed in 1766.
 * The Sugar Act placed taxes on all imported goods that were on mass. The men leading it were determined to stop smuggling. The Sugar Act united Americans and gave them the notion that they should be free of British Control.
 * The Declaratory act deemed Great Britain supreme over colonies: it was a slap to the face. British began to neglect American argument.
 * Townshend Acts placed more taxes on lead, tea, paper, paints, and goods that were imported. Colonists boycotted goods, in a union.
 * Boston Massacre resulted in British repeal of all but Tea tax, to notify colonists who was the boss.
 * Tea Act was the British effort to make the East India Company survive from bankruptcy, British Tax was imposed on Tea to have Americans pay, and force them to buy British Tea.
 * The result of the Tea Act was the Boston Tea Party. Sam Adams and his friends went to the Dartmouth dressed like Indians, to dump tea.

British Response to the Boston Tea Party

 * Coercive Acts (Or Intolerable Acts - unjust acts in that they intended to punish Boston and MA generally for the crime committed by a few individuals) was passed, to blockade Boston Harbor from all trade, a punishment. This marked the step from resistance to revolution.

Results of the Second Continental Congress

 * Was a small meeting of patriots who decided on what to do for the entire nation. They organized the resistance, acting as government.


 * The battle of Bunker Hill marked the bloodshed of a serious war, and congress ordered on attack on Canada and a search for munitions abroad.


 * It was a gathering of colonial delegates in May of 1775. It was immediately faced with the pressure of rapidly unfolding military event. It organized the Continental Army and commissioned George Washington to lead it, then began requisitioning men and supplies.

Famous Battles

 * Crossing of the Delaware- Washington[America] defeated Hessians
 * Battle of Long Island- Howe[Britain] almost defeated Washington but hesitated
 * Saratoga: Howe[Britain] is defeated
 * Yorktown: Easy victory against Cornwallis[Britain]; war almost over

Roles of Tories/Loyalists in Revolution

 * Loyalists are also known as Tories. They were mostly men who had a respected place in the clergy of Britain. They usually fled. Sometimes fought against the Continental Army, and were mistreated against by the Continentals.


 * They hesitated to take up arms against England, and they took up 1/3 of the colonists in 1776. They were poorly organized and if limited help to the British armies, and the Patriots persecuted them.

"Common Sense" by Thomas Paine

 * It was written by Thomas Paine, after the declaration that British would send Hessian elite soldiers. It called boldly for independence, attacking monarchy. It was one of the most famous documents, almost virtually read by all colonists. It made colonies more vindicative.

American Allies in the Revolution
France - Munitions, vital supplies. After the victory at saratoga, "drafted a commercial treaty and a formal treaty of alliance. The two nations agreed to make "common cause and aid each other mutually" should "war break out" between France and Great Britain" (123)

Spain - "Spain also contributed, not out of sympathy for the Revolution but because of its desire to injure Great Britain." (123)

Indians - They assisted in the Revolution in hope of being treated better in the future.

Valley Forge
Site of the camp of the American army led by George Washington in Pennsylvania. The supply system failed, soldiers starved and froze.

"After the loss of Philadelphia, Washington had settled his army for the winter at Valley Forge...The army's supply system went down to the ground. Often the men had nothing to eat but "fire cake," a mixture of ground grain and water molded on a stick or in a pan and baked in a campfire." (123)

Peace Treaty of Paris
1782 - The peace treaty signed in Paris between the US and Great Britain ending the American Revolution. It set the boundaries of the new nation at the Great Lakes, the Mississippi River, and 31° north latitude (border of Florida). It was agreed that all British troops would withdraw from American soil and recognised that Americans had the right to fish in the Grand Banks off Newfoundland and use the unsettled beaches on nearby Labrador and Nova Scotia.

Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation
1) Under the Articles there was only a unicameral legislature so that there was no separation of powers.

2) The central government under the Articles was too weak since the majority of the power rested with the states.

3) Congress, under the Articles, did not have the power to tax which meant that they could never put their finances in order.

4) In order to change or amend the Articles, unanimous approval of the states was required which essentially meant that changes to the Articles were impossible.

5) For any major laws to pass they had to be approved by 9 or the 13 states which proved difficult to do so that even the normal business of running a government was difficult.

6) Under the Articles, Congress did not have the power to regulate commerce which will cause competition between states as well as diplomatic issues.

[Radford.edu]

Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom
This document is one of the three achievements on Jefferson's tombstone. It was written in 1779 by Thomas Jefferson, and written into law in 1786. This document separated church and state. Jefferson had disliked the system of religious tolerance, which allowed non-Christian religions to exist as long as they paid a tax to fund Christian sects, leaving others (Judaism, Catholicism) unfunded and underrepresented.

Religious Freedom =/= Tolerance

American Revolution's effect upon slavery
More freeing of slaves, slaves fought alongside colonists, and were respected (more, but not significantly)

George Washington's Strengths

 * He was tall, very respected in the Colonies. He had virtues and avoided needless bloodshed
 * Set important precedents such as: two terms as president and denounced factions
 * His views were neutral--> didn't succumb to any factions
 * Also, he was a war hero, very perceptive military leader
 * He takes in people's idea and let it influence him, unlike Jackson.

Shay's Rebellion
1786 - Armed uprising in western Massachusetts led by Daniel Shays. Consisted mainly of farmers angered over tax concerns. Quelled by state troops, but concessions towards the rebels were made at the next legislature meeting.

Whiskey Rebellion

 * Continental Congress tried to place a tariff on wines. It was met with huge resentment, and lost validity.
 * Washington "makes an example" of the rioters by executing many of them.

The Great Compromise
The smaller states were in favor of The New Jersey Plan, which was proposed by William Paterson. In many ways this plan resembled our current plan of government, The Articles of Confederation. This plan proposed a one-house national legislature with representatives selected by state legislatures. Each state will be able to cast one vote. It also proposed a supreme court appointed for life by the executive officers.

The Larger states supported the Virginia Plan. The Virginia Plan was proposed by Edmund Randolph. The plan favored the interest of the larger states, the smaller states feared that they would have no power. This plan proposed three separate branches of government and a bicameral legislature where representation will be based upon states population or money contributions.

http://www.cyberlearning-world.com/nhhs/amrev/begin.htm

Resolution: The House and the Senate were formed, which gave equal power to all states in the Senate but also took into account state's populations in government.

The 3/5 Compromise

 * All slaves were counted as 3/5 a person; they could not vote.
 * The owners therefore had more than one vote
 * ex: slave owner has 50 slaves; he has the power of 30+1=31 votes.
 * Significant because the North had a larger population than the south, and therefore had more of a say in congress. The 3/5 compromise "increased" the population of the south, therefore enabling the South to have more power in congress

Legislative

 * Also known as Congress.
 * Makes all laws.
 * Controls all the money; taxes, borrows, and sets the budget (with exception of unappropriated spending by central bank).
 * Has sole power to declare war.
 * Oversees, investigates, and makes the rules for the government and its officers.
 * Confirms the heads of the executive branch.
 * Confirms federal judicial appointments, and defines by law the jurisdiction of the judicial branch in cases not specified by the Constitution.
 * Ratifies treaties.
 * Originates and tries cases of impeachment.

Executive

 * Also known as the President.
 * Preserves, protects and defends the Constitution.
 * Faithfully executes the laws of the United States.
 * Executes the instructions of Congress.
 * May veto laws (but the veto may be overridden by Congress by a 2/3 majority) or refuse to execute them if s/he deems them unconstitutional.
 * Executes the spending authorized by Congress.
 * Executes the instructions of Congress when it declares war or makes rules for the military.
 * Declares states of emergency and publishes regulations and executive orders.
 * Creates treaties, and appoints judges and other executive heads, both with the advice and consent of the Senate.
 * Has the power to grant pardons for crimes against the United States.
 * Has the power to put flags at half staff.

Judicial

 * Also known as the Supreme Court, with inferior courts that are created and limited by Congress.
 * Determines which jurisdiction any given case falls under.
 * May refuse to enforce laws that it deems unconstitutional.
 * Determines the disposition of prisoners.
 * May legally compel testimony and the production of evidence as the law provides.
 * Judges and competently administers uniform policies via the appeals process, but gives discretion in individual cases to low-level judges (the amount of discretion depends upon the standard of review, determined by the type of case in question).
 * Oversees and administers members of the judiciary.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers#Checks_and_balances

The Bill of Rights

 * Gave people their natural rights (freedom of speech), that made the constitution more favorable. Written by Madison. Rights of property, liberty, life, speech, press, religion, right to bear arms, fair trial, no unreasonable searches or seizures.
 * Was "tacked on" as an after thought; NY wouldn't ratify until it was promised a Bill of Rights to follow.

Loose vs. Strict interpretations of the Constitution
These two different views tended to clash especially over state powers. Hamiltonians believed that many federal powers extended to the state, but Jeffersonians disagreed with this claim since it was not EXPLICITLY stated in the Constitution
 * Hamiltonians believed in loose interpretation: because the founding fathers could not have thought up of everything. He pointed out that the Constitution should be used with elasticity, and “implied powers” be used. "Proper."
 * Jeffersonians believed in strict: the constitution needs to specifically authorize it. "Necessary."

The Influence of the French Revolution on American Politics

 * The Americans declared neutrality to all foreign nations because it was obligated to go to War with Great Britain if they attacked France.
 * Both France and Britain began seizing American ships.
 * Jefferson really liked the French. :D

The founding of political parties
A table of the differences between the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans:
 * Hamilton and Jefferson led each of the parties. The rise of parties came from the constitution leaving a gap in the designation of federal offices, and because it addressed national problems that were discussed by a diverse group of people.
 * Hamilton defended Britain and was accused of liking British, he wanted a powerful government. [Federalists]
 * Jefferson defended the French for their ideas and effort for revolution. However, he was accused of being a blood thirsty radical. [Democratic Republicans]
 * Hamilton and the Federalists were against the French and pro-Britain.



The messages behind Washington's "Farewell Address"
Urged the nation to remain neutral with Britain and France

Warned against the forming of political parties, fearing it would divide the nation. U.S. should work as a whole.

Suggested improvement of industry

The Terms of Jay's Treaty
In 1794, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Jay was dispatched to England to seek solutions. The resulting agreement stirred up heated passions within the cabinet with Hamilton supporting the agreement and Jefferson opposing it. Key provisions included:
 * 1) The withdrawal of British soldiers from posts in the American West
 * 2) A commission to be established to settle outstanding border issues between the U.S. and Canada
 * 3) A commission to be established to resolve American losses in British ship seizures and Loyalist losses during the War for Independence.

The XYZ affair

 * An American Commission was sent to France to negotiate peaceful relations and re-normalize trade. France had been treating America as a hostile nation after the signing of Jay's treaty, and as a result, had been capturing US ships. Despite this attempt to peacefully negotiate, France sent three agents, X, Y, Z, to demand money from America in order to establish a peace treaty. The requested amount was about $250,000 in cash, and around $10 million in loan.

Purpose of the Alien and Sedition Acts

 * Federalists passed a measure that granted the US the power to deport foreigners away in times of war to protect the nation, and made requirements for citizenship steeper. It also made it illegal to make/pronounce false lies of federal officials.
 * Partly enacted to attack Dem. Reps.

Presidential election of 1800

 * The contestants for President were Jefferson & Burr, who both received 73 votes each.


 * In the end, Hamilton, who detested Burr, gave his votes to Jefferson.


 * Thus, Jefferson won the election.
 * People say that Jefferson unfairly won the election, refer to the article "The Negro President"
 * He did not win in popular vote, but in electoral votes--most which came from the south. And, lets remember, quite a bit of the South's population consisted of slaves
 * It is argued that Jefferson would not have become president if the 3/5 compromise hadn't been passed.

Federalist Accomplishments

 * Ratification of the constitution
 * Jay’s treaty, Peace of Paris
 * Strengthened federal government
 * Diversified economy
 * Refused to be carried away by French Revolution ideals

Thomas Jefferson's political philosophy

 * He believed human beings were selfish (Hobbesian view), and that blacks were inferior to whites. He believed in logic and reasoning, he supported a direct, strict interpretation of the constitution. He also believed that the government was evil. He did not like industry of cities, because he believed they would become too independent. He supported the Revolution if it was for a good cause.

Marbury vs. Madison

 * Adams admitted ‘midnight justices’ at the end of his term, so that the Federalists would control the Supreme Court. When Jefferson learned he tried to impeach the judges. He promptly did not let the writ pass, and one of the appointed justices, Marbury, sued for his position.


 * The Supreme Court Judge, John Marshall, was placed in an embarrassing position because if he did not let the writ pass, it would mean he yielded to Jefferson. If he let the writ pass, he would conflict with the Executive branch. However, Marshall said that the Judiciary Act of 1787[?], which Marbury’s argument was based on, was unconstitutional. This set the precedent of the Judicial branch calling laws unconstitutional (Judicial Review).

Louisiana Purchase

 * Due to failures during the Haitian revolt, Napoleon was forced to sell North American Colonies due to finance; he suspended all conquests in North American, and made a treaty with Representative Monroe. Jefferson was especially worried about French occupation, and he felt threatened. However, the West was secured: (Most of it was paid by French debt to the colonies)

Impressment

 * Under British law, British subjects could be drafted for War. American ships began to be seized by the British. Sometimes American subjects were seized as well. This led to increased contention between the two nations

Embargo Act (1807)
"The embargo Act prohibited all exports...Importing was not forbidden, but few foreign ships would come to the United States if they had to return without a cargo." (191)

The Embargo Act had catastrophic effects. Exports, imports both fell, merchants found their business disrupted and many people simply found the ways to evade the law.

Causes of

 * France tricked America to go to war with France. Napolean said that he would stop the passing of his Milan Decree (enforced that no Europeans were to trade with Britain) and the Berlin Decree (forbade import of British goods to all nations allied France) but he did not. (This tricked Madison with increasing political stress on the British).
 * Indian raids continued. One notable one was by Tecumseh, who organized all the Indian tribes into a great Confederacy with his brother, The Prophet.
 * Some colonists, known as war hawks, tried to press for war because they were into Canadian land, which was possessed by the British Opponents of the War
 * Many argued the War senseless and worthless bloodshed. Among those was Congressmen Josiah Quincy,. Federalists did not like.

The War

 * Sparked by impressment conflict. Irony: impressment was revoked 3 days before the DoW was made by the U.S.
 * American forces were severely weak and underfunded. These soldiers were of a new generation. After the soldiers of the revolutionary war, and had no combat experience.
 * The British navy dominated the American navy, which consisted of privateers. British soldiers were hardened from the France Anglo war, and were thirsting for the blood of the patriots who inflicted such heavy losses in the revolution.
 * The three attacks on Canada failed miserably due to the cowardice of inexperienced soldiers
 * The Star Spangled Banner was written by F. Scott Key during the bombardment of Fort McHenry
 * Hartford Convention Federalist met to talk about disbanding the nation, and ceceeding. They announced that Great Britain would win. These meetings eventually led the federalists being discredited and charged with treason.
 * Treaty of Ghent US representatives and British representatives met at Ghent to devise a treaty, which ended all hostilities. Nothing was gained for either side.

British Strategies in

 * British enclosed and blockaded American ports, limiting trade. After the French War was over, Britain went on the offensive. British attacked unorganized and inexperienced American soldiers with sheer numbers alone. They overtook the capital and burned the capitol building.

Outcomes of the Battle of New Orleans

 * The battle could have been avoided if it wasn’t for bad communication; Treaty of Ghent was signed a few days before the battle.
 * The city of New Orleans was defended by Andrew Jackson (Old Hickory). Instead of defending, Jackson maintained the Offensive: eventually he had to fall back.
 * In the end, during their defense, 2100 British redcoats were killed, with 13 Americans killed. This battle convinced the British that Americans were not mere inconveniences.
 * Eventually, relationships between Great Britain and America grew.
 * Spain control of the Floridas was weak. Eventually due to a combination of fear of Americans, fear of Latin American territories (brink of war) and money, Spain gave up Florida for 5 million.
 * A border for Spanish Mexico was drawn through western Texas.

The Monroe Doctrine

 * Russians threatened the US because of their interest in American soil.
 * Due to social and economic upheavals, Britain was slowly falling into trouble. They controlled commerce with South American colonies (after Spain broke down). Scared of French of Spanish interference in the Latin American colonies, Britain tried to get America to oppose any French or Spanish revival in that Area. However, this would make American’s have to go to war if the need came. Thus, the Monroe Document was created, which claimed that Americans would not focus in international affairs. This announcement was the final step to US sovereignty.
 * In short: America will stay out of European affairs as long as Europeans stay out of American affairs.

Trends during the "Era of Good Feelings

 * Political parties became less contentious, and more tolerant of each other. Transportation was improved, and a new national bank was created. Even Adams and Jefferson became good friends.

Western Land Issues
Neither Monroe nor his contemporaries appreciated the role of the extensive speculation in western lands nor the impact of the catastrophic drop in cotton prices in 1818.

http://www.presidentprofiles.com/Washington-Johnson/James-Monroe-Economic-policy.html

Henry Clay: Leadership and Compromises
Henry Clay (Western) was charismatic. Congressmen and Warhawk. Intellectually inferior to the rest of the politicians but was gifted at inspiring others. He devised the “American System”, which meant that the West would back the tariff if east supported them in building canals and roads. This system was when all sections in the US pitched in to benefit the entire nation as a whole. ==The Missouri Compromise ==
 * Missouri petitioned for statehood- most of its populace were slave owners. Missouri would become a slave state
 * During the time, a man named Tallmadge of New York tried to stop spread of slavery by saying that after the age of 25, all slaves in Missouri be freed; called the Missouri Enabling Act. It did not pass and an angry debate raged in Congress for months. In the end, a line was drawn above 36º 30’, above Arkansas Territory that prohibited all slavery to the North.
 * Arkansas and Oklahoma would be admitted as slave states with the land left to the South.
 * Maine is entered as a free state to keep the balance between free and slave states.

 The Missouri Compromise: 

In 1820, after an angry debate in Congress, Missouri entered the Union as a slave state, and Main was admitted as a free state to preserve the balance of slave and free states in the Union. Slavery was also banned from that part of Louisiana Territory north of 36e 30’.

1824 Presidential Election

 * Although Jackson won the electoral and the popular vote, he did not gain the majority. Thus, the House of Representatives had to choose.

Outcomes
When Henry Clay supported Adams leading to an Adams victory, Jacksonians were outraged.

Tariff of 1828

 * Also called Tariff of Abominations, which placed much more taxes on goods. Southerners and Northerners disputed, with Southern economy growing weaker.
 * Helped Northern manufacturers and hurt Souther agriculture

Reactions
This caused the Nullification Crisis, with Carolina trying to make the tariff void in their state.
 * Due to Britain selling cheap goods to the US, the US placed a tariff on foreign goods. This benefited the North, but hurt the South due to their cotton industry.
 * The national bank had lent credit recklessly. The new bank tried to collect the debts from the people. In the end, they succeeded, but it caused a decline in public favor. The sections had different views on the new bank, causing a division.
 * Land issue was also a problem. West wanted expansion, north did not (Because it would hurt industry due to drained surplus), and South did not either (land competition for cotton fields)
 * Slavery also caused a major divisive issue, with North against, and West and South for. This was because there were “slaves” and “nonslave” states, meaning that anyone could cause an imbalance.

John C. Calhoun
Calhoun (Southern) Congressman was considered the most objective politician of the time because he held an open mind. Bookish and unimaginative. Brilliant. Wrote up South Carolina Exposition and Protest claimnig the right of a state to nullify an act of Congress.

"Exposition and Protest"
Theory of Nullification of S.Carolina.
 * Since states had created the constitution, they had the last say of what goes. A state could theoretically call a law unconstitutional, and nullify the law within its own boundaries.

Other Political Leaders

 * JQ Adams (North), part of/involved in Transcontinental and Monroe doctrine. Brilliant but socially inept. Republican, Secretary of legation in Russia and Great Britain. Minister to Netherlands and to Prussia. Very hard and dedicated worker. Perfectionist.
 * Webster (N), lawyer and orator. Congressman. Was very materialistic, loving memory, wines, and women. Shifted his views to whoever he thought would win.
 * Van Buren (N) Very well liked by even enemies. Obtained from taking political positions. Headed Albany Regency.
 * Crawford (S) orator, brilliant leader, but had a stroke while running for presidency, making him ineligible.

Andrew Jackson's "democratization" of American politics
- Direct democracy is brought to the people, Jackson is almost dictatorial, the people become involved and informed in politics through the media.

- People believed that everyone was equal which led to the glorification of ordinariness and made mediocrity a virtue. It also led to a democratizing of American politics in the period.

Election of 1828

 * Andrew Jackson won the election, against John Quincy Adams, by popular vote and electoral vote.
 * "The 1828 election stimulated party formation because instead of several sectional candidates, each dominant in his own region, competing presidency, it pitted two nationally known men against each other. This compelled local leaders to make a choice and then to organize their forces in order to convince local voters to accept their judgement" (Garraty, 251)

"Spoils System" and "Principle of Rotation"
SS – A term that identifies the practice of elected officials who appoint loyal members of their own party to public office. Jackson was accused of initiating this practice (he called it rotation-in-office) when elected to pres. in 1828

Meaning of Jacksonian Democracy
This concept glorified the equality of all adult white males or “the common man.” It disliked anything that was against special privilege. It rejected the elitist view that only the proven “best” men should be chosen to manage public affairs.

"The difference between Jeffersonian democracy and the Jackson variety was more one of attitude than of practice. Jefferson had believed that ordinary citizens could be educated to determine right. Jackson insisted that they knew what was right by instinct" (Garraty 250).

Voting became dramatically more important, and so did competition between candidates. Political parties also became powerful institutions.

(See the heading "Andrew Jackson's 'democratization' of American politics".)

View of the Presidency

 * “More than any earlier president, he conceived of himself as the direct representative of all the people and therefore the embodiment of national power” (Garraty, 254).

Popularity and Success
- “He was intensely patriotic, generous to a fault, natural and democratic in manner… He seemed, in short, both an average and an ideal American, one the people could identify with and still revere” (Garraty, 253).

Veto of the 2nd National Bank
In 1832 Pres. Jackson vetoed a politically motivated proposal to renew the charter of the second Bank of the U.S. Jackson’s veto message asserted that the Bank was unconstitutional, a dangerous monopoly, and vulnerable to control by foreign investors.

Debate between Daniel Webster and Robert Hayne
In 1830, South Carolina Senator Robert Hayne tried to forge an alliance of the South and West based on a cheap land policy and low tariffs. Senator Webster accused Hayne of disunionism and argued that the Constitution was a compact of the American people, not of the states, and that it was perpetual and indissoluble.

Turner's Frontier Theory
Turner's somewhat radical theory insisted that the frontier, or the Great West, is what pushed American development, rather than the traditional idea that it was the East, or the original colonies. "Up to our own day, American history has been in a large degree the history of the colonization of the Great West. The existence of an area freeland, its continuous recession, and the advance of American settlement westward, explain American development." (72, Jackson's frontier- and Turner's)

He argued that the frontier promoted three things: nationalism, independence, and democracy.

Nationalism : "...arose as the frontier broke down the geographic and cultural identities of the Atlantic coast." (74)

"Interstate migration went steadily on- a process of cross-fertilization of ideas and institutions" (74) <-- The West held the opportunity to shed a "foreign" identity and feel American.

Independence : "Frontier towns became self-sufficient, and eastern merchants increasingly provided westerners wit American rather than English products. The economic system became more American, more independent" (74)

Democracy : "The frontier acted as a safety valve... draining off potential sources of discontent before they disrupted society" (74). If people were unhappy with their living situation or government, the West was a "gate of escape" to freer conditions

'''**I did not finish the entire article, so the parts about why his theory is wrong are not on here. PLEASE EDIT AND ADD MORE!'''

Terms
Creole: a person of European descent born in the West Indies or Latin America Peninsular: a Spanish-born Spaniard.

Reasons for Wars
Increasing prosperity of Peninsular contributed to envy and contempt from the Creole lower class. This was due to the Bourbon Reforms (which was designed to modernize Spain). The growth of the Latin American Colonies eventually clashed with Spanish mercantilism. Education and appreciation for the arts grew, as a result of Spain reforming officials (in an effort to improve quality of life).

Many upper Creoles read the writings of European philosophers, including those on government and freedom. The American and French revolution greatly attributed to growing ideas of freedom. Spanish rule also declined. The victory of Buenos Aires, where British invasions were driven back to a united stand by the Creoles fueled revolution ideas.

Caudillos
Caudillos are military dictators. They ruled like "mobsters", using protection and security as incentives to join their group.